A book in stone
The walls of Borobudur’s lower terraces carry carved panels that, taken together, are often described as one of the largest collections of Buddhist narrative relief in the world. Commonly cited figures give roughly 1,460 narrative panels, along with a further set of decorative ones, but counts vary with what is included and with how many survive in readable condition. Treat any single number as approximate.
The reliefs were made for people who knew the stories. They are not captioned, and some scenes are still debated. What follows is the generally accepted outline, not a final reading.
The hidden base
The lowest level of Borobudur was covered by an added stone footing at some point in its history, probably for structural reasons. Reliefs on the buried base are generally identified as showing the workings of cause and effect in human life, through scenes of good and bad actions and their results. Almost all of this level is still hidden; a small stretch was left exposed in modern times so that visitors can see a sample. Early photographs made after its discovery remain the main record of the rest.
The first gallery: the Buddha’s life and earlier lives
The first gallery is where most visitors begin. The upper row on the main wall is usually identified with the Lalitavistara, a Sanskrit text that tells the life of the Buddha in a richly decorated style. The series begins with the descent of the future Buddha from the Tushita heaven, follows through birth, youth, renunciation and the struggle at the Bodhi tree, and is generally understood to end with the first teaching in the Deer Park. The same story is told at the sites in India; see the awakening story and the Bodhi tree for the background.
The lower row on the main wall, and the panels on the balustrade facing it, are usually linked to the Jataka tales and similar didactic stories. These are accounts of the Buddha in earlier lives, often as an animal or a king, practising generosity, patience or restraint. Some of the stories are recognised in several Buddhist traditions; others appear in Sanskrit collections more than in the Pali texts. Scholars have also identified a few panels that seem to follow other stories not yet firmly matched.
The second to fourth galleries: a seeker’s journey
Most of the panels on the next galleries are linked to the Gandavyuha, a section of a large Mahayana text. It follows a young pilgrim named Sudhana, who is sent from one teacher to the next in search of understanding. The teachers include monks, laypeople, merchants, women and bodhisattvas, so the story presents wisdom as available in many walks of life. The final panels are often associated with a closing vow, and are linked to the Bhadracari. For context on texts of this kind, see the Mahayana sutras.
The Buddha statues
The reliefs are accompanied by seated Buddha images in niches along the balustrades, and more on the circular terraces above. Each direction has its own hand gesture: the earth-touching gesture faces east, the gift-giving gesture south, meditation west and fearlessness north, with a teaching gesture on the highest of the square levels. Our general explanation of Buddha mudras helps with recognising these, and Buddha iconography covers other features such as the ushnisha and the robes. A separate article on Borobudur stupas and Buddhas deals with the images on the open terraces.
Many images are headless or damaged, partly through natural decay and partly through removal in earlier centuries. Present-day damage still happens when people touch or lean on carvings, which is one reason that signs ask visitors to keep their hands off.
How to view them in order
The traditional way to see the monument is clockwise, keeping the monument on your right, which is the direction of circumambulation in Buddhist practice. Because of that, the usual advice runs as follows.
- Begin at the east side, where the main staircase leads up to the first gallery.
- On each gallery, walk with the wall on your right so that the panels unfold in sequence.
- Take the main wall first and then, if time allows, return along the balustrade.
- Move up through the galleries one at a time rather than going straight to the top.
Doing the whole sequence takes much longer than most visits allow. A realistic plan is to choose one gallery and read a handful of scenes carefully. Rules on how far visitors may climb, and which stairways are open, have changed in recent years, so check the current official information before your visit.
Looking with care
The stone is soft in places and the carvings are fragile. Do not touch them, lean against them, or place objects on the ledges. Ask before photographing worshippers, and avoid flash. The temple dress code is modest clothing, and quiet is expected. Photography at sacred sites is a topic of its own, and the same courtesies apply here as elsewhere.
Reliefs are best seen in side light, which means early morning or late afternoon. The middle of the day is hot and glare can flatten the carving.
Why the art still matters
The panels give a picture of how the Buddha’s life and the Mahayana path were taught in Java more than a thousand years ago. They also show links with Indian art and literature and with other parts of maritime Asia. What they do not provide is a single authoritative reading; the identification of scenes is still being refined, and visitors will find that guides and books sometimes disagree.