Two kinds of cave
Early Buddhist rock-cut sites in India, especially in the Western Ghats region, contain two main types of excavation. Both are carved into the rock, usually basalt, but they serve different purposes.
- A chaitya (sometimes spelled chaitya-griha) is a hall for worship, built around a stupa.
- A vihara is a residence for monks, arranged around a central space with small cells.
Understanding the difference is the key to reading most cave sites. The terms are used mainly for early Buddhist caves, and similar ideas appear in other traditions, such as Jain and Hindu rock-cut architecture.
The chaitya hall
The classic chaitya hall is long and narrow, with a rounded (apsidal) end. Its main parts, from the entrance inward, are:
- A facade with a large horseshoe-shaped window above the door that lets light into the interior. This arch shape appears widely in early Indian architecture.
- A nave, a central aisle that ends at the apse.
- Side aisles, separated from the nave by rows of columns. Visitors and monks could walk through these aisles around the stupa, which is the same circuit as the one used outdoors; compare circumambulation practice.
- A stupa at the apsidal end, carved from the living rock, usually plain and without an image.
- A barrel-vaulted ceiling, sometimes with carved stone ribs imitating wooden beams. Scholars generally think these shapes derive from earlier timber architecture. In some caves real wooden elements were also used.
The effect is of an enclosed, roofed version of the open-air stupa site. Earlier caves such as Bhaja and Karla are often cited as important early examples. Karla is frequently described as one of the largest and best preserved early chaitya halls, though exact details of dating vary between sources. Its dating is usually placed around the first centuries BCE and CE.
The vihara
A vihara is the monastic part of the site. In the simplest layout it consists of:
- a central hall or courtyard, where monks could gather;
- a series of small cells opening off the hall, each usually large enough for a sleeping platform cut from the rock;
- sometimes a verandah with pillars at the front.
Some of the oldest monastic caves have no shrine at all, which reflects the early emphasis on the monastic community and the stupa as the main focus of worship. The vihara is a living space, not a worship hall, although it might host teachings. For how monastic life continued in later settings, see monastery daily life.
From stupa to Buddha image
Over time the plan of both types changed. In later caves, especially from around the fifth century CE, a Buddha image is often carved on the stupa at the back of a chaitya hall, or a shrine room with an image is added at the back of a vihara. This change tracks wider developments in Buddhist art. The caves at Ajanta, with their well-known paintings, include early and later phases; the Ajanta murals are mostly associated with the later period. At Ellora, Buddhist caves sit beside Hindu and Jain excavations in the same ridge, and Ellora caves include a large chaitya hall with a carved Buddha in front of the stupa.
Where to see them
The best-known concentrations of Buddhist caves are in Maharashtra and neighbouring regions, in the Western Ghats caves such as Karla, Bhaja, Kanheri, Ajanta and Ellora. A wider overview of the type is in rock-cut caves. In Sri Lanka, the Dambulla cave temple has a different history, as an active temple whose cave shrines were repeatedly redecorated, rather than an early monastic complex.
Rock-cut sites also appear outside India, along trade routes through Central Asia and into China. The Longmen Grottoes in China and the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan show how the idea of carving into rock spread, though these are different in plan and purpose.
What to look for as a visitor
- Is there a stupa at the far end? If so, you are probably in a chaitya hall.
- Is there a row of small cells opening from a central space? That suggests a vihara.
- Look at the columns. Early ones are simple octagons; later ones may be elaborately carved.
- Look for traces of paint and plaster. Many surfaces were once covered.
- Notice how light enters. The arched window above a chaitya door is carefully placed.
Practical notes
Cave sites can be dark, uneven and slippery, and some are reached by long steps. In hot or monsoon conditions, conditions can be demanding. Many are protected heritage sites with set opening hours, fees and rules about flash photography, which change over time, so check current official sources. Dress modestly and treat any active shrine with respect, as customs vary between sites.