Why caves?
The “secrets” of Buddhist cave temples are mostly practical and historical ones. Caves offered shelter, seclusion and a durable material. Early monks are described in tradition as retreating to natural caves, particularly during the rainy season, when travel was difficult. Later, patrons commissioned monks’ quarters and halls to be cut directly into cliffs. The result, in several regions, was whole monasteries carved from rock, with sculpture and painting added over generations.
This article gives a survey of the tradition and of four well-documented examples. The details of dates, number of caves and patronage differ by source and are often approximate.
Origins in India
Rock-cut architecture in India developed in the centuries around the start of the Common Era, especially in the Deccan and the Western Ghats. The caves imitate built forms, so that a cave can have carved “beams” and ribbed ceilings that echo wooden construction. Two types of space are typical: a worship hall with a small stupa, and residential cells around a courtyard, as described in the article on the chaitya and vihara layout. Western Ghats caves such as those at Karla and Bhaja are among the early examples that are often cited.
Rock-cut sites were often located along trade routes. Merchants were important donors, and inscriptions at some caves record gifts by traders and ordinary people as well as rulers. This connection between trade and Buddhist institutions would be repeated across Asia.
Ajanta
Ajanta, in the Indian state of Maharashtra, consists of around thirty caves cut into a horseshoe-shaped gorge. Work is generally understood to have taken place in two broad phases: an earlier one in the last centuries BCE and early centuries CE, and a later one in the fifth century CE and perhaps beyond. Scholars debate details of the chronology.
Ajanta is best known for its paintings. The Ajanta murals depict the life of the Buddha and the Jataka stories, and they are regarded as an outstanding survival of early Indian painting. The caves are protected and light is limited so that the pigments can survive, and visitors should follow the site’s rules on photography and flash. Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Ellora
Ellora, also in Maharashtra, is different in that it contains Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments side by side. The Buddhist caves are generally dated to the earlier part of the site’s long period of activity, roughly the middle of the first millennium CE, with Hindu and Jain work continuing afterwards. Visitors can see monastic halls, shrines with large Buddha images and one large chaitya hall. The Ellora caves are often cited as an example of religious communities working in the same landscape over time. The most famous Hindu monument there, the Kailasa temple, is not Buddhist.
Mogao
Mogao, near the oasis city of Dunhuang in north-west China, is a very large group of Buddhist cave temples on the Silk Road. According to tradition, the first cave was excavated in the fourth century CE, and work continued for many centuries. The site has hundreds of caves, many with wall paintings and painted sculptures. The exact number of caves quoted varies with how they are counted.
Mogao is also famous for a sealed cave in which a large cache of manuscripts and documents was found around the year 1900. These texts, in several languages, are a major source for the history of Buddhism and of life along the Silk Road. Visitors today should check current access rules, as entry to the caves is often controlled and regulated to protect the paintings. The wider Silk Road cave sites include others in Central Asia, among them the Kizil Caves near Kucha.
Longmen
The Longmen Grottoes lie on the Yi River near Luoyang in Henan province, China. Carving is usually said to have begun in the late fifth century, when the Northern Wei dynasty moved its capital to Luoyang, and to have continued under later dynasties, notably the Tang. The grottoes contain a very large number of niches and statues, with some colossal figures carved into the cliff face. The Longmen Grottoes are a UNESCO site and are visited by many tourists.
Unlike Ajanta, Longmen is not a complex of residences; it is principally an open-air gallery of carved shrines, where devotees and patrons commissioned images, often with inscriptions naming them. Some of the sculpture has been damaged or removed over the centuries, which is a common story at cave sites.
What the caves were for
The purposes varied by site, and caves often served several at once:
- Retreat and meditation. Cells and quiet corners suited monks in solitude.
- Residence and teaching. Large halls and cells supported communities.
- Worship. Shrines held images and stupas where laypeople and monastics made offerings.
- Merit-making. Patrons gained merit by commissioning a cave or an image, which may explain the sheer number of donor inscriptions.
- Storage. In some places, caves also served as repositories for manuscripts.
Other cave traditions exist, including the Dambulla cave temple in Sri Lanka and Pharping caves in Nepal, where caves hold special associations for particular teachers and practices. Bamiyan in Afghanistan, with its niches for large Buddhas, belongs to the same wider family.
Visiting caves respectfully
Many caves are fragile as well as sacred. Follow site rules about photography and flash, do not touch paintings or sculpture, and dress modestly. Some caves remain in active use for worship, so remove shoes when asked. Conditions vary: sites can be hot, dusty or steep, and some are remote, so check current official sources on opening hours, access, weather and health advice before travelling.